This essay will explore how Beauty Pageants, principally Miss Universe, has engaged with KTC. While there may be real Kimono worn by Japanese and Japanese adjacent contestants in the 'National Costume' category, I will be focusing on the Kimonope worn by contestants. The idea of Kimono as a 'national costume' sparks interesting conversations on what 'national costumes' are, their target audiences, and how we form ideas about these things to begin with.
Background on Miss Universe
Miss Universe began in 1952 as a marketing ploy by a California company Catalina to sell swimsuits and has continually run for 71 years now as an international arm of the Beauty Pageant Industry. Beauty Pageants such as Miss Universe have gone through many scandals, mostly regarding their lack of diversity, criticism from feminist groups, problems regarding eating disorders, ownership by the fart himself and denying full dignity (in the legal sense) to the incredibly intelligent and hard working women who take part in them.
The National Costume Narrative
Firstly when we are talking about National Costumes, we must remember that in English we are talking about the historically European tradition of giving 'National Costumes' to certain groups. This began in the 18th century as a way to define what a country was and took off in the 19th in the advent of European Colonization which saw a desire to pseudo-classify and catalogue everything in existence.[5] This saw series of illustrated books drawn by many European and later American and Asian artists depicting the 'National Dresses' of certain groups to quell the thirst of the public appetite for 'rational' 'native' outfits which continues as National Costume Colouring books today. Albeit the focus is more on folklore, shared cultures and mainstream ethnicities today, an example being the controversial Han-fu for China, when instead more people are familiar with the Qipao of the Manchu.
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The Kimono as a National Costume brings up a series of interesting debates about national identity. That is how to define National Costume. For some countries, it is their traditional dress in a postcolonial world, others their folklore or mythological dress, some unofficial ceremonial garb, particular silhouettes, some particular colours and others types of lavishly decorated fabrics. These things are all subjective though when we consider that Nationality like money and gender, is a social construct; one that at times gatekeeps other ethnic identities from exerting any kind of power and suppresses more diverse national stories.
In Britain for example, there is no such definitive thing as a Kimono to call a National Costume. Instead we are often represented by tacky costumes only fit for Halloween which riff on the idea of what it means to be 'British', which axiomatically is a million and one things. British contestants for example since Kim Carlton (the English semifinalist) dressed up as a Beefeater (Yeomans Warder) in 1962.[1] Other examples include the 1968, 1971, 2010 and 2015 Beefeater costumes.[1][2][3] Other editions draw on the more vague Britannia, Monarchy-adjacent, Union Jack attire, with the latest by Jeaneatte Akua in a bid to the Pearley Kings and Queens of working class London culture.[4]
In fact Welsh and Scottish (Kilts and Betgwyn) national dress only arose in response in the 19th century as part of the Celtic revival to prevent them from becoming extinct, and to save them for posterity in lieu of the English wool suit. It is in this sense we can see why 'National Costumes' carved out a space for themselves, as a need to make space in a dominant cultural identity which threatened to wipe their own out. Tartan in particular was originally banned by the English in the 1500s, along with the Celtic languages as a way at the time for King Henry VIII; originally Welsh himself; to get England into the Continental European spotlight by pushing a narrative of England first (sound familiar?).[12] It is for this reason I in particular do not refer to Kimono as a National Costume or Dress, as it a patriarchal paternalistic notion of hegemonic cultural/White supremacy that Kimono are distinctly outdated womens attire, only fit for the 'lesser race' (in the words of Leonce Benedite[11]) which I shall hereby Christen : Macarthism.[13]
*C*o*o*l* Japan
When it comes to the Kimono as a National Costume, there are some interesting theories about 'Cool Japan' (japanese conservative soft power push). It is interesting how the 'Dying Kimono' trope works, as it is a principle example of Macarthism at work at pushing the idea that traditional Japanese culture is inferior to the superior Western culture.[13] When we examine Akiko Kojimas original use of Kimono at the Miss Universe pageant for example, whilst she may have done (I cannot exclusively find evidence) she wears Kimono as everyday or at least casual wear, not as a traditional 'Oriental costume'. Kojima wore Kimono to hand accept and handover the 1960 crown, on tour as Miss Universe, to get married and in domestic commericals for example.[14][15] It seems therefore that generally civilian Japanese had not got the message yet about Americas superiority complex.
This had all changed however by the 1960s when Japan, as it had 100 years before, had to take on another great 'Modernization' period once more to reclaim its own position as great power once more. This internalized Macarthism is reflected in the way Ms. Akiko was represented in American society. In the same year that saw Donyale Luna, she and Akiko entered the pages of the previously all Hwight Harpers Bazaar, a magazine that refused previously to run models of 'color' in its pages. Akiko was presented in Western dress, not Kimono. This is striking as it tells us of the fact that Kimono was not considered fashionable enough to be considered as fashion in its own right, instead Akiko wore *acceptable* white brands such as Sarff-Zumpano Inc.[16]
It is interesting to note though that this comes with the caveat of internalized inferiority dealt with the idea that 'Japan lost the [Pacific] war'. This attitude in Japan commonly refers to the postwar generation of Japanese Teeners (I recently studied the etymology of teenager, never using that one again) who felt the burden of growing up in the shadow of Macarthism, in a world which saw the subjugation of Japanese culture as 'feudal', saw Japanese people as 'savages' for fighting on the wrong side of WWII and the unlawful incarceration of Nissei Americans (1942-1947). When 'Sukiyaki' was released to Western audiences it gave notions of Beef dinner, to a Japanese Teener, Ue o Muite Arukō (I look up as I walk) was reminiscient of the frustration of dealing with American occupation in the Anpo protests (1959-1970) and the Sunagawa Struggle (1955-1956). Its culmination being the murder of Chinese-American Vincent Chin in 1982 at the hands of Statesian men who thought he was Japanese.
It is in this cultural hegemony that we see the 'Dying Kimono' trope appear, because casual wear of the Kimono becomes a thing of your mothers generation by 1975, and your grandmothers by 1995. That is, the idiotic idea that Japanese=bad, American=good. When the next winner of Miss Universe wore Kimono, it was as a 'National Costume' in 2007 by Riyo Mori who wore an altered Kimono.[6] Ever since this time it has been commonly accepted that Japanese pageant goers wear Kimono to the National Costume section of the event. It is this internalized effort to become 'global' which has made the Kimono into 'vintage' exclusive fashion, if fashion at all, as Japan has attempted to claw back the image of the Kimono as fashion since the 1990s when it sees a revival amongst young people.
'Cool Japan', a sort of right wing Japanese politicians wet dream of global Japanese hegemony on par with the 1902 Russo-Japanese win in their books, has attempted to adopt the Kimono as a National Costume as well which is a strand of Japanese paternalism which in itself is just a strand of 1690s Iki ideas about the 'correct way' to wear Kimono (all 52 colourways and seasonal motif Houmongi or Komon included) mixed with a dash of inferiority complex, has thankfully yet to make any headway, but is certainly a proponent of the issue of bringing KTC into the global world as global fashion under Macarthism's influence.
It is in this climate that Ayako Hara wore an upcycled (?) Kimono to Universe 2012.[8] Yukimi Matsuo wore a Furisode to Universe 2013.[9] The cringe worthy conservative political version of 'Cool Japan' fosters a disturbingly ethnocentric idea of Kimono, which is also another thorn in the side of KTC. This thankfully saw a divergence when Miss Japan wore a bedazzled Seifuku (Sailor Uniform), influenced by Cosplay and Sailor Moon in 2018.[9] This move into national costumes like the Seifuku is particularly reassuring as it is the Death of the 'Dying Kimono' trope, in saying that Kimono is current and alive, and that culturally Japan has more to its 'national' culture than just reasserting 'Wafuku'. Wamono in this sense has shifted to a more inclusive contemporary understanding of the national, away from the stereotypical Longingism of 'coolies' and 'Geisha-girls'.
Kimonopes
It is in this strand of Kimono as national costume we come to the rather comical if mix of cultural Acculturation and Appropriation. They point thankfully to the more widely accepting side of global fashion which post 2005 began to accept Kimono as a global fashion garment. Post the John Galliano, Vivienne Westwood and Alexander McQueen acceptance of KTC (lets be honest, who remembers half of the shows before the English swooped back in to finish Charles Worth's legacy) we recieve a number of reactions from the Western world which are tantamount to the grey area KTC exists in majority white spaces.
We see the confused 'National Costume' of Emiri Miyasaka who wore a Kimonope to Universe 2009.[7] This particular Kimonope appears to only worn in Summer, as the bottom half of the Susoyoke (Skirt Juban slip) is completely gone with only pink Panty and Stockings left. Designed by a French woman at the Miss Universe offices, a telling piece of Cultural Appropriation.
The absolute corker though that is Juri Watanabe's distinctly Kimo-nope to Universe 2021 is well ... there.[10] The ode to 'Harajuku fashion' (my 15 year old Textile class literally did better) that is that evening dress is stunning in its bid to be fashionable. Certainly more Cultural Acculturation than the mess that was Miyasaka's Kimonope, it still manages to be more Halloween than Ballroom gown. Topped with pink space buns, as you go down, the neckline falls away to reveal the Nihon Kanji etched in Sharpie and a sequined crossover pink cocktail dress with a train (right over left because we are dying of laughter), stretchy yellow polyester belt and 'Kimono' sleeves. Pink go-go boots and two moving beckoning cats complete the Camp.[10] Designed by the Israeli designer Aviad Herman, this Kimonope whilst horrifyingly bad, is a step in the right direction to curb the Dying Kimono trope of Macarthism, in displaying that KTC has made a comeback as global contemporary fashion.
Conclusion
In total we can how the context for many national costumes depends on how we define national culture. Kimono and other 'traditional' garments are often seen as 'national dress' due to the decline of their wear after the introduction of Western power structures, colonization and efforts to 'modernize' under globalisation. After 1955, this evolves from Macarthistic policy, which becomes internalized in Japanese culture by 1970 becoming the 'Dying Kimono' trope, which precipitates that old 'feudal' Japanese culture has been shed off becoming 'modern' Japan. After 1990 though, KTC was revived domestically and has since re-emerged as casual clothing once more both in Japan and globally with the rise of the digital age.
In context therefore, we see how the Kimono has become regarded as a 'National Costume' for Japan, but that when we explore how we get to the notion of certain modes of dress being 'Costumes' we can see how this can be a negative reinforcement of existing power structures through lenses such as Macarthism. The Kimonopes which exist in these spaces are often attempts at cultural appreciation, but more often are regarded as objects of cultural appropriation by many. Thankfully, we can also see post 2005, a resurgence in the pageant and fashion worlds of KTC as influential global fashion (for example the 2016 Furisode for Miss Mexico at Miss Latina USA designed by Sueko Oshimoto).[17] This sees the Kimono as a modern incarnation of fashion, part of its revival in the contemporary world we live in and allows Kimono to be seen as desirable in the current beauty standards we ourselves hold, unravelling the work of hwight supremacists. Thus seeing the reemergence of KTC as living, contemporary fashion, as seen in high fashion, beauty pageants and street fashion.
Bibliography
[1] https://kiddolovesit.wordpress.com/2014/04/03/always-the-bridesmaid-but-never-the-bride-the-curious-case-of-the-united-kingdom-in-miss-universe/
[2] https://metro.co.uk/2010/08/17/tara-vaitiere-hoyos-british-bid-for-miss-universe-dresses-as-beefeater-482213/
[3] https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/beefeater-a-yellow-tree-and-an-entire-hockey-game-miss-universe-s-bizarre-national-costumes-9999220.html
[4] https://www.insider.com/miss-universe-wildest-national-costumes-from-pageant-2021-5#miss-great-britain-jeanette-akua-channeled-bridgerton-with-her-royal-ensemble-complete-with-a-glittering-tiara-and-extravagant-cape-18
[5] https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=National+costume&year_start=1500&year_end=2019&corpus=en-2019&smoothing=0&case_insensitive=true
[6] https://richardsamuel888.wordpress.com/2021/01/14/riyo-mori-miss-universe-2007-wore-sytlish-kimono-during-the-pageant-beauty-that-year/
[7] https://japantoday.com/category/national/barrage-of-complaints-force-miss-universe-japan-to-change-costume-for-finals
[8] https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/miss-universe-2012-national-costume-show-photos-415485
[9] https://japantoday.com/category/features/lifestyle/miss-universe-japan-picks-%27sailor-moon%27-ninja-transformation-dress-as-national-costume-for-2018
[10] https://soranews24.com/2021/12/15/miss-universe-2021-japan-entry-slammed-for-wearing-dead-persons-kimono/
[11] Allegorizing Aryanism: Fernand Cormon's The Human Races, Maria P Gindhart, 2008, Volume 9, Online Edition, The Journal of the History of Art (Aurora), WAPACC Organization
[12] http://www.britainusa.com/sections/articles_show_nt1_d_0_i_41110_L1_41013_L2_41013_a_28485.html
[13] Allied Occupation of Japan, Eiji Takemae, 2003, pp.6-7 | See https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ba5hXsfeyhMC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=Macarthur+boy+of+12+japan&source=bl&ots=zCWRz2JKwM&sig=ACfU3U2yVzbxXPKhsxIIudaoSyEeGqVQRg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjp0b7IhZ_6AhWEnVwKHRmVBVoQ6AF6BAgUEAM#v=onepage&q=Macarthur%20boy%20of%2012%20japan&f=false
[14] https://www.insider.com/most-iconic-miss-universe-looks-of-all-time-2019-12#akiko-kojima-of-japan-wowed-in-a-traditional-outfit-before-winning-the-1959-event-23
[15] https://summerballads.wordpress.com/2020/10/02/akiko-kojima-wanita-asia-pertama-yang-menjadi-miss-universe/
[16] https://www.vintag.es/2022/07/akiko-kojima.html
[17] https://www.facebook.com/Kimono-SK-180754161968429/photos/kimono-dress-for-miss-mexico-at-miss-latino-usa-fashion-show-produced-by-virgeli/1201928273184341
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