Im kinda still sick so im trying. Mostly from food babbies.
Wu in the historical record
Wu's patronage of the period is particularly spotty on the historical record due to, and you may be seeing a theme here, male mediocrity which quite literally attempted to erase their records from the annals of history. Like Hatshepsut whose reign is only known from in passing and historical reconstruction of their reign from the surrounding historical, archaeological and sympathetic writers records, Wu's recorded deeds were either willingly not recorded or wiped from the usual means to which their usual recording would have commenced, such as Wu's mortem stele. The following quotation from our friend the Wikimedia Foundation succinctly covers it:-
Under her 45-year reign, China grew larger, becoming one of the great powers of the world, its culture and economy were revitalized, and corruption in the court was reduced. She was eventually removed from power during a coup and died a few months later.[1]
What is certain of Wu in the historical record however, is that Wu partook in the beautification and empowering of her state iconography using aesthetic means in the fact that Wu took an art name, Wu Mei (武媚 | Glamorous ).[1] Art names are professional pseudonyms used by artists, much like 'Banksy' or Bree Runway today for example. In the Tang Dynasty, these pseudonyms were used by artisans, poets and writers and were highly regarded in Confucianism for their ability to create in the original Latin sense of the term for an Occidental frame of reference.
Wu was born into wealth, and was encouraged by their father to cultivate their education. Between 630 637 their education included diverse subjects of politics, bureaucracy, writing, literature, and music.[1] Becoming a sort of secretary position in the imperial system by 638, they reportedly advised their weeping Mother (who was losing her own limited family agency, whilst also losing her child) that they would be involving themself in the Imperial lineup at this time.[1] I.E., Wu would be gaining an education and social/cultural capital network in the meantime and not to worry.[1] Thus from 639-655, Wu spent their time building a world for themselves on the Imperial penny.[1] Indeed therefore, Wu Mei or Wu Meiniang (武媚娘) refers to Wu in their youngers years in Chinese.[1] Other titles include Talented Lady (才人; from 637), Lady of Bright Deportment (昭儀; from 649) and Wu Zhao/Zetian from 690 onwards.[1] It is in this vein that we discuss the creations that Wu put in place which surround this impetus of theirs to utilise aesthetics, power and education as a tool of the state.
Wu's Patronage
Wu presides over the golden era of Classical Chinese art and culture, even down to the modern day.[1] Decidedly more active than their contemporaries in this matter, such as how Louis the 14th propogated systems of control around the textiles industry in the propagation of sumptuary laws in 1668, in a bid to remain fashionable, gentrified and make french goods more profitable. Wu was decidedly more recognisable however in the femme spendthrift nature of their reforms, as Elizabeth I of England who created systems surrounding herself to curate a specific iconography surrounding her personage. For example the wearing of gloves by Elizabeth with women's longer fingernails became a court fashion which was followed by her courtiers and her successor King James 1&6 where men's gloves followed the Elizabethan tradition of having fingertips not reaching the actual length of their owner's actual finger measurements.[2]
Wu was surrounded by other women in the imperial court system who were educated and successful in their 'lady hobbies', such as the acclaimed essayist Empress Zhangsun ( 長孫皇后 | 601-636 ). This pursuing of education would have been a pivotal role in their position as Imperial Secretary/Cairen in Wu's early stint in the Imperial retinue was one of a talented background player at court between 638-649 when Wu's polygamous owner died.[1] In the traditional respect, Wu was therefore expected to retire into a Buddhist monastery for the rest of their life, but it is most likely that this haphazard grouping of power relations as a well-read, educated, promising and perhaps destined personage which encouraged their building of these diverse patronage networks in the 630's and 640's.[1] During this time however, the women in the court were in an imperial spat over the current Emperor, and therefore the leading Empress aimed to distract the Emperor by bringing back Wu into the fold to divert his small man brain for a while.[1] Wu as a learned person, was able to use their wiles and smarts to turn the situation to their favour, most likely using their connection to build up systems such as their spy network to do so.[1] Indeed this time as a pesudo-Nun, most likely enamoured Wu to the learning capacity Buddhism and other Steppe cultures offered to women.[1]
After 650 when Wu became Empress Consort, was Wu able to begin publically crafting their image, iconography, state power and affiliation with industries and craftspeople to showcase the dissemination of their control over the state. Wu is indeed why we see such a drastic shift in the aesthetical nature of contemporary statues in the Longmen Grottoes for example during their reign.[1] Other major building projects and artworks, literature pieces and the like would have been commissioned but have been lost to the sands of time, or more likely just male mediocrity attesting to Wu's aesthetic interests and power over the public and political realms in their lifetime as a patron and ruler.[1] This set of systems was backed up a gathering of court poets such as Li Yifu who backed Wu in taking care of their political rivals.
From 660 to 690 Wu exercised unparalleled control over their patronage systems. In 690 they gained full and absolute control over this series of systems, institutions and infrastructure which during this time saw these systems of power expand the borders and industries of China across Europe and East Asia. These economic profits fuelled the Chinese domestic and empirical coffers and allowed local industries, trades and crafts to flourish creating their contemporary economy. This creation of Wu's influential political legacy allowed Wu's patronage of these same crafts and industries to create new higher standards for them, which is what modern day scholars are referring to when we talk about Wu's legacy being the Golden Age of Chinese culture. Wu's Patronage directly enabled more diverse attitudes to enter in the public conversation in mainstream Chinese culture, such as ideas imported from those wider areas contemporary middle kingdoms scribes were previously unaware of.[1]
In 690 Wu's Zhou dynasty was established.[1]
Wu's Legacy
In this vein, we finally get around to the contextually driven legacy of Wu in the shaping, benefitting and imposition of the feminine standard of what a Meiren was, could and should be.
Wu's acceptance of more diversity in the Zhou dynasty enabled a greater ripple effect in the raising of the lower classes, lessening class stratification and state support for new religions including Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism and the wider encouragement of literacy, literature and education reform amongst their subjects.[1] Wu however would have seen themselves in the successive line of their predecessors, given their desired inclusion in the traditional Qian burial mounds which would signal their inclusion with other established rulers before them.[1]
This legacy has ripple effects going into the wider context of Tang's empirical reach, mostly leftover in the beauty standards of Eastern Asia and also somewhat down the line of Silk Road.
Bibliography
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Zetian
[2] My brain and some other jumbled assortment of artefacts.
Bijin Series Timeline
11th century BCE
- The Ruqun becomes a formal garment in China (1045 BCE); Ruqun Mei
8th century BCE
- Chinese clothing becomes highly hierarchical (770 BCE)
3rd century BCE
Xi Shi (flourished c201-900CE); The (Drunken) Lotus Bijin
2cnd century BCE
- The Han Dynasty
1st century BCE
Wang Zhaojun (active 38 - 31 BCE) Intermediary Bijin
0000 Current Era
1st century
- Han Tomb portraiture begins as an extension of Confucian Ancestor Worship; first Han aesthetic scholars dictate how East Asian composition and art ethics begin
- Isometric becomes the standard for East Asian Composition (c.100); Dahuting Tomb Murals
- Ban Zhao introduces Imperial Court to her Lessons for Women (c106); - Women play major roles in the powerplay of running of China consistently until 1000 CE, i influencing Beauty standards
- Buddhism is introduced to China (150 CE)
- Qiyun Shengdong begins to make figures more plump and Bijin-like (c.150) but still pious
Diao Chan (192CE); The Outer Bijin
2cnd century
- Yuefu folk ballads inspire desirable beauty standards of pining women ; Tacit Bijin
4th century
Gu Kaizhi (active 364-406); Metaphorical Beauty
- Buddhism is introduced to Korea (c.372)
- Chinese Artists begin to make aesthetic beauties in ethereal religious roles of heavenly Nymphs
- Luo River Nymph Tale Scroll (c.400)
- Womens clothing emphasized the waist as the Guiyi (Swallow-Tail Flying Ribbons) style (c.400)
- Wise and Benevolent Women (c.400)
5th century
- Chinese Art becomes decadent; Imperial Culture begins to see more expression in religious statues (c450)
- Longmen Grotto Boddhisattvas (471)
6th century
Xu Ling; (active 537-583); Terrace Meiren
7th century
- Tang Dynasty Art (618-908)
- Rouged Bijin (600-699 CE) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Paintings_of_the_Tang_Dynasty
Yan Liben (active 642-673); Bodhisattva Bijin
Wu Zetian (active 665-705); The Great Tang Art Patron [Coming Fully Soon]
Asuka Bijin (c.699); The Wa Bijin
8th century
- Princess Yongtai's Veneration Murals (701) [Coming Soon]
- Introduction of Chinese Tang Dynasty clothing (710)
- Sumizuri-e (710)
Yang Yuhuan Guifei (719-756); [Coming Soon] East Asian Supermodel Bijin https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/275768522.pdf https://factsanddetails.com/china/cat2/4sub9/entry-5437.html#chapter-5
- Astana Cemetery (c.700-750) [Coming Soon]
Zhang Xuan (active 720-755); [Coming Soon]
- What is now Classical Chinese Art forms
- An Lushun Rebellion (757)
Zhou Fang (active 766-805) ; Qiyun Bijin
- Emakimono Golden Age (799-1400)
9th century
- Buddhist Bijin [Coming Soon] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Paintings_of_the_Tang_Dynasty#/media/File:Noble_Ladies_Worshiping_Buddha.jpg + https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves#/media/File:Anonymous-Bodhisattva_Leading_the_Way.jpg
- Gongti Revival https://www.jstor.org/stable/495525?seq=2#metadata_info_tab_contents
10th century
-End of Tang Art (907)
11th century
-Empress Zhangxian Mingsu (1020-1022) Coming soon
13th century
- Heimin painters; 1200-1850; Town Beauty
15th century
- Fuzokuga Painting schools; Kano (1450-1868) and Tosa (1330-1690)
Tang Yin (active 1490-1524); Chinese Beauties [Coming Soon] https://www.comuseum.com/painting/masters/tang-yin/
16 century
- Nanbanjin Art (1550-1630)
- Wamono style begins under Chanoyu teachings (c1550-1580)
- Byobu Screens (1580-1670)
- End of Sengoku Jidai brings Stabilisation policy (1590-1615)
17th century
- Land to Currency based Economy Shift (1601-1655)
- Early Kabuki Culture (1603-1673) ; Yakusha-e or Actor Prints
- Machi-Eshi Art ( 1610 - 1710) ; The Town Beauty
- Sumptuary legislation in reaction to the wealth of the merchant classes (1604-1685)
- Regulation of export and imports of foreign trade in silk and cotton (1615-1685)
Iwasa Matabei (active 1617-1650) ; Yamato-e Bijin
The Hikone Screen (c.1624-1644) [Coming Soon]
- Sankin-Kotai (1635-1642) creates mass Urbanisation
- Popular culture and print media production moves from Kyoto to Edo (1635-1650); Kiyohara Yukinobu (1650-1682) ; Manji Classical Beauty
- Shikomi-e (1650-1670) and Kakemono-e which promote Androgynous Beauties;
Iwasa Katsushige (active 1650-1673) ; Kojin Bijin
- Mass Urbanisation instigates the rise of Chonin Cottage Industry Printing (1660-1690) ; rise of the Kabunakama Guilds and decline of the Samurai
- Kanazoshi Books (1660-1700); Koshokubon Genre (1659?-1661)
- Shunga (1660-1722); Abuna-e
Kanbun Master/School (active during 1661-1673) ; Maiko Bijin
- Hinagata Bon (1666 - 1850)
- Ukiyo Monogatari is published by Asai Ryoi (1666)
Yoshida Hanbei (active 1664-1689) ; Toned-Down Bijin
- Asobi/Suijin Dress Manuals (1660-1700)
- Ukiyo-e Art (1670-1900)
Hishikawa Moronobu (active 1672-1694) ; Wakashu Bijin
- Early Bijin-ga begin to appear as Kakemono (c.1672)
- Rise of the Komin-Chonin Relationship (1675-1725)
- The transit point from Kosode to modern Kimono (1680); Furisode, Wider Obi
- The Genroku Osaka Bijin (1680 - 1700) ; Yuezen Hiinakata
Fu Derong (active c.1675-1722) ; [Coming Soon] https://archive.org/details/viewsfromjadeter00weid/page/111/mode/1up?view=theater
Sugimura Jihei (active 1681-1703) ; Technicolour Bijin
- The Amorous Tales are published by Ihara Saikaku (1682-1687)
Hishikawa Morofusa (active 1684-1704) [Coming Soon]
- The Beginning of the Genroku Era (1688-1704)
- The rise of the Komin and Yuujo as mainstream popular culture (1688-1880)
- The consolidation of the Bijinga genre as mainstream pop culture
- The rise of the Torii school (1688-1799)
- Tan-E (1688-1710)
Miyazaki Yuzen (active 1688-1736) ; Genroku Komin and Wamono Bijin
Torii Kiyonobu (active 1688 - 1729) : Commercial Bijin
Furuyama Moromasa (active 1695-1748)
18th century
Nishikawa Sukenobu (active 1700-1750) [Coming Soon]
Kaigetsudo Ando (active 1700-1736) ; Broadstroke Bijin
Okumura Masanobu (active 1701-1764)
Kaigetsudo Doshin (active 1704-1716) [Coming Soon]
Baioken Eishun (active 1710-1755) [Coming Soon]
Kaigetsudo Anchi (active 1714-1716) [Coming Soon]
Yamazaki Joryu (active 1716-1744) [Coming Soon] | https://www.jstor.org/stable/25790976?seq=5
1717 Kyoho Reforms
Miyagawa Choshun (active 1718-1753) [Coming Soon]
Miyagawa Issho (active 1718-1780) [Coming Soon]
Nishimura Shigenaga (active 1719-1756) [Coming Soon]
Matsuno Chikanobu (active 1720-1729) [Coming Soon]
- Beni-E (1720-1743)
Torii Kiyonobu II (active 1725-1760) [Coming Soon]
- Uki-E (1735-1760)
Kawamata Tsuneyuki (active 1736-1744) [Coming Soon]
Kitao Shigemasa (1739-1820)
Miyagawa Shunsui (active from 1740-1769) [Coming Soon]
Benizuri-E (1744-1760)
Ishikawa Toyonobu (active 1745-1785) [Coming Soon]
Tsukioka Settei (active 1753-1787) [Coming Soon]
Torii Kiyonaga (active 1756-1787) [Coming Soon]
Shunsho Katsukawa (active 1760-1793) [Coming Soon]
Utagawa Toyoharu (active 1763-1814) [Coming Soon]
Suzuki Harunobu (active 1764-1770) [Coming Soon]
- Nishiki-E (1765-1850)
Torii Kiyonaga (active 1765-1815) [Coming Soon]
Kitao Shigemasa (active 1765-1820) [Coming Soon]
Maruyama Okyo (active 1766-1795) [Coming Soon]
Kitagawa Utamaro (active 1770-1806) [Coming Soon]
Kubo Shunman (active 1774-1820) [Coming Soon]
Tsutaya Juzaburo (active 1774-1797) [Coming Soon]
Utagawa Kunimasa (active from 1780-1810) [Coming Soon]
Tanehiko Takitei (active 1783-1842) [Coming Soon]
Katsukawa Shuncho (active 1783-1795) [Coming Soon]
Choubunsai Eishi (active 1784-1829) [Coming Soon]
Eishosai Choki (active 1786-1808) [Coming Soon]
Rekisentei Eiri (active 1789-1801) [Coming Soon] [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ukiyo-e_paintings#/media/File:Rekisentei_Eiri_-_'800),_Beauty_in_a_White_Kimono',_c._1800.jpg]
Sakurai Seppo (active 1790-1824) [Coming Soon]
Chokosai Eisho (active 1792-1799) [Coming Soon]
Kunimaru Utagawa (active 1794-1829) [Coming Soon]
Utagawa Toyokuni II (active 1794 - 1835) [Coming Soon]
Ryūryūkyo Shinsai (active 1799-1823) [Coming Soon]
19th century
Teisai Hokuba (active 1800-1844) [Coming Soon]
Totoya Hokkei (active 1800-1850) [Coming Soon]
Utagawa Kunisada Toyokuni III (active 1800-1865) [Coming Soon]
Urakusai Nagahide (active from 1804) [Coming Soon]
Kitagawa Tsukimaro (active 1804 - 1836)
Kikukawa Eizan (active 1806-1867) [Coming Soon]
Keisai Eisen (active 1808-1848) [Coming Soon]
Utagawa Kuniyoshi (active 1810-1861) [Coming Soon]
Utagawa Hiroshige (active 1811-1858) [Coming Soon]
Yanagawa Shigenobu (active 1818-1832) [Coming Soon]
Katsushika Oi (active 1824-1866) [Coming Soon]
Hirai Renzan (active 1838ー？) [Coming Soon]
Utagawa Kunisada II (active 1844-1880) [Coming Soon]
Yamada Otokawa (active 1845) [Coming Soon] | 山田音羽子 https://www.jstor.org/stable/25790976?seq=10
Toyohara Kunichika (active 1847-1900) [Coming Soon]
Kano Hogai (active 1848-1888) [Coming Soon]
Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (active 1850-1892) [Coming Soon]
Noguchi Shohin (active c1860-1917) [Coming Soon]
Toyohara Chikanobu (active 1875-1912) [Coming Soon]
Uemura Shoen (active 1887-1949) [Coming Soon]
Kiyokata Kaburaki (active 1891-1972) [Coming Soon]
Goyo Hashiguchi (active 1899-1921) [Coming Soon]
20th century
Yumeji Takehisa (active 1905-1934) [Coming Soon]
Torii Kotondo (active 1915-1976) [Coming Soon]
Hisako Kajiwara (active 1918-1988) [Coming Soon] https://www.roningallery.com/artists/kajiwara-hisako | https://www.jstor.org/stable/25790976
Yamakawa Shūhō (active 1927-1944) [Coming Soon]
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